May|NNP 18|CD ,|, 2006|CD ANTH|NNP 250|CD Prof.|NN Tavárez|NNP Indigenous|NNP Revitalization|NNP Movements|NNP of|IN Latin|NNP America|NNP :|: The|DT Rediscovery|NNP of|IN Language|NNP and|CC Identity|NNP Humans|NNP ,|, in|IN the|DT process|NN of|IN defining|VBG themselves|PRP ,|, look|VB to|TO immediately|RB recognizable|JJ factors|NNS in|IN order|NN to|TO differentiate|VB themselves|PRP from|IN others|NNS .|. 
This|DT process|NN leads|VBZ to|TO the|DT development|NN of|IN what|WP can|MD be|VB broadly|RB termed|VBN culture|NN :|: a|DT group|NN of|IN people|NNS joined|VBN by|IN characteristics|NNS ,|, traits|NNS ,|, and|CC beliefs|NNS comes|VBZ to|TO view|VB themselves|PRP as|IN sharing|VBG a|DT distinct|JJ identity|NN ,|, discernible|JJ from|IN that|DT of|IN those|DT “|NN outside|JJ ”|NN them|PRP ,|, those|DT who|WP do|VBP not|RB belong|VB .|. 
Naturally|RB this|DT can|MD be|VB signaled|VBN by|IN any|DT number|NN of|IN things|NNS -|- clothing|NN ,|, food|NN ,|, lifestyle|NN choices|NNS .|. 
One|CD of|IN the|DT most|RBS dominant|JJ and|CC easily|RB noted|VBD factors|NNS is|VBZ language|NN .|. 
The|DT command|NN of|IN a|DT language|NN ,|, while|IN not|RB affording|VBG guaranteed|VBN access|NN to|TO the|DT community|NN which|WDT speaks|VBZ it|PRP ,|, is|VBZ often|RB the|DT key|NN to|TO gaining|VBG entry|NN .|. 
In|IN turn|NN communal|JJ identity|NN can|MD be|VB formed|VBN around|IN a|DT language|NN ;|: it|PRP is|VBZ used|VBN as|IN the|DT focal|JJ point|NN around|IN which|WDT the|DT group|NN gathers|VBZ .|. 
Therefore|RB when|WRB considering|VBG the|DT indigenous|JJ revitalization|NN movements|NNS which|WDT began|VBD in|IN 20th|JJ century|NN Latin|NNP America|NNP ,|, the|DT impact|NN of|IN those|DT indigenous|JJ languages|NNS on|IN those|DT movements|NNS and|CC the|DT nature|NN of|IN the|DT identity|NN of|IN the|DT peoples|NNS themselves|PRP is|VBZ key|JJ .|. 
Language|NNP plays|VBZ a|DT complex|JJ and|CC integral|JJ role|NN in|IN the|DT development|NN and|CC redefinition|NN of|IN an|DT identity|NN ,|, particularly|RB when|WRB that|DT identity|NN has|VBZ been|VBN oppressed|JJ and|CC subsumed|VBN by|IN a|DT dominant|JJ other|JJ for|IN as|RB long|RB as|IN that|DT of|IN the|DT indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS in|IN Latin|NNP America|NNP has|VBZ .|. In|IN particular|JJ I|PRP will|MD examine|VB two|CD divergent|JJ yet|RB remarkably|RB parallel|JJ cases|NNS ,|, that|IN of|IN the|DT Maya|NNP in|IN Guatemala|NNP and|CC the|DT Nasa|NNP and|CC Guambiano|NNP peoples|NNS of|IN Colombia|NNP .|. 
Their|PRP$ struggle|NN to|TO attain|VB status|NN in|IN societies|NNS still|RB bearing|VBG the|DT marks|NNS of|IN Spanish|JJ colonialism|NN is|VBZ deeply|RB tied|VBN to|TO their|PRP$ struggle|NN to|TO reaffirm|VB the|DT nature|NN of|IN their|PRP$ “|NN indigenous|JJ identity|NN ”|NN ,|, and|CC is|VBZ in|IN turn|NN linked|VBN to|TO the|DT interaction|NN of|IN Spanish|JJ and|CC their|PRP$ native|JJ languages|NNS .|. 

The|DT effects|NNS of|IN Spanish|JJ colonialism|NN are|VBP both|DT far|JJ -|- reaching|VBG and|CC deeply|RB embedded|VBN in|IN both|DT countries|NNS .|. 
One|CD of|IN the|DT most|RBS prominent|JJ ,|, lasting|JJ influences|VBZ is|VBZ that|IN of|IN the|DT land|NN grant|NN system|NN .|. Initially|RB the|DT Spanish|JJ government|NN attempted|VBD to|TO instate|NN the|DT encomienda|NN system|NN ,|, in|IN which|WDT a|DT conquistador|NN maintained|VBD direct|JJ control|NN over|IN the|DT indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS and|CC their|PRP$ land|NN .|. 
This|DT was|VBD in|IN turn|NN replaced|VBN by|IN the|DT repartimento|NN ;|: the|DT natives|NNS were|VBD allowed|VBN to|TO maintain|VB control|NN over|IN their|PRP$ land|NN and|CC their|PRP$ laws|NNS but|CC remained|VBD in|IN every|DT way|NN the|DT inferior|JJ of|IN the|DT Spanish|JJ ,|, providing|VBG labor|NN and|CC taxes|NNS as|IN demanded|VBN .|. 
In|IN reality|NN land|NN ownership|NN rights|NNS were|VBD the|DT exclusive|JJ right|NN of|IN the|DT Spanish|JJ ,|, resulting|VBG in|IN modern|JJ -|- day|NN malappropriation|NN of|IN land|NN ownership|NN in|IN the|DT hands|NNS of|IN the|DT descendants|NNS of|IN the|DT Spanish|JJ colonialists|NNS (|( Warren|NNP 1978|CD ,|, 7|CD 8|CD )|) .|. Indigenous|NNP peoples|NNS are|VBP commonly|RB sharecroppers|NNS or|CC migrant|NN workers|NNS .|. 
The|DT impoverished|VBN plight|NN of|IN the|DT native|JJ populations|NNS was|VBD first|RB recognized|VBN by|IN the|DT Marxist|JJ movements|NNS of|IN the|DT early|JJ 20th|JJ century|NN .|. 
Those|DT were|VBD the|DT first|JJ to|TO articulate|VB the|DT necessity|NN of|IN affirming|VBG the|DT independent|JJ identity|NN of|IN the|DT indigenous|JJ populations|NNS ;|: previously|RB ,|, both|DT the|DT left|NN and|CC right|NN maintained|VBD a|DT belief|NN in|IN indigenous|JJ assimilation|NN into|IN the|DT dominant|JJ Spanish|JJ culture|NN .|. 
The|DT Marxists|NNP ,|, on|IN the|DT contrary|NN ,|, argued|VBD that|IN the|DT indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS possessed|VBD a|DT unique|JJ identity|NN .|. 
However|RB ,|, they|PRP also|RB claimed|VBD that|IN they|PRP were|VBD part|NN of|IN a|DT larger|JJR group|NN ,|, the|DT working|VBG class|NN ,|, whose|WP$ poverty|NN was|VBD a|DT direct|JJ result|NN of|IN American|JJ imperialism|NN ;|: therefore|RB they|PRP should|MD join|VB these|DT new|JJ popular|JJ leftist|JJ movements|NNS in|IN order|NN to|TO reorganize|VB society|NN into|IN a|DT worker|NN -|- friendly|JJ one|CD (|( Jackson|NNP 1995|CD :|: 6|CD -|- 7|CD )|) .|. 

In|IN Colombia|NNP this|DT resulted|VBD in|IN a|DT civil|JJ war|NN between|IN the|DT Liberal|NNP and|CC Communist|NNP parties|NNS and|CC Conservative|JJ party|NN .|. 
A|DT truce|NN established|VBN between|IN the|DT Liberals|NNS and|CC Conservatives|NNS failed|VBD to|TO meet|VB the|DT demands|NNS of|IN the|DT Communists|NNPS ,|, who|WP in|IN turn|NN sustained|VBN guerrilla|NN attacks|NNS in|IN response|NN .|. 
Guerrilla|NN warfare|NN has|VBZ since|IN become|VBN a|DT part|NN of|IN Colombian|JJ life|NN ;|: multiple|JJ groups|NNS maintain|VBP an|DT ongoing|JJ presence|NN ,|, often|RB stationing|VBG themselves|PRP in|IN the|DT remote|JJ mountainous|JJ villages|NNS often|RB populated|VBN by|IN various|JJ indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS .|. 
This|DT is|VBZ similar|JJ to|TO the|DT situation|NN of|IN Guatemala|NNP :|: the|DT government|NN felt|VBD it|PRP needed|VBD to|TO battle|VB communism|NN ,|, an|DT “|NN armed|VBN and|CC dangerous|JJ menace|NN within|IN ”|NN ,|, plunging|VBG the|DT country|NN into|IN civil|JJ warfare|NN in|IN the|DT 1960s|NN and|CC continuing|VBG through|IN the|DT 1980s|NN (|( Warren|NNP 1993|CD :|: 25|CD )|) .|. 
This|DT resulted|VBD in|IN persecution|NN against|IN the|DT Mayans|NNP ,|, who|WP make|VBP up|RB about|IN 60|CD %|NN of|IN the|DT overall|JJ population|NN .|. In|IN both|DT counties|NNS ,|, guerrillas|NNS were|VBD often|RB associated|VBN with|IN the|DT native|JJ peoples|NNS ;|: in|IN many|JJ cases|NNS there|EX were|VBD coalitions|NNS ,|, but|CC in|IN others|NNS the|DT guerrillas|NNS merely|RB used|VBD the|DT remote|JJ ,|, inaccessible|JJ villages|NNS as|IN hideouts|NNS .|. 
In|IN Guatemala|NNP over|IN 450|CD villages|NNS were|VBD destroyed|VBN ,|, 200,000|CD Mayans|NNP were|VBD killed|VBN ,|, and|CC over|IN 1|CD million|CD more|JJR were|VBD displaced|VBN .|. 
The|DT main|JJ guerrilla|NN force|NN was|VBD demilitarized|JJ in|IN 1996|CD with|IN the|DT establishment|NN of|IN a|DT peace|NN accord|NN (|( Warren|NNP 2002|CD :|: 157|CD -|- 158|CD )|) .|. 

The|DT growth|NN in|IN popularity|NN and|CC militarism|NN of|IN these|DT popular|JJ leftist|JJ movements|NNS is|VBZ intertwined|VBN with|IN the|DT development|NN of|IN the|DT indigenous|JJ revitalization|NN movements|NNS .|. 
By|IN the|DT 1970s|NN the|DT need|NN to|TO assert|VB a|DT cause|NN separate|JJ from|IN the|DT general|NN left|VBD was|VBD seen|VBN ,|, and|CC indigenous|JJ rights|NNS movements|NNS formed|VBN (|( Warren|NNP 2003|CD :|: 174|CD ,|, Jackson|NNP 2002|CD :|: 82|CD )|) .|. 
Central|NNP to|TO these|DT was|VBD the|DT question|NN of|IN indigenous|JJ identity|NN :|: 
largely|RB lost|VBD amidst|NN the|DT overwhelming|JJ Spanish|JJ influence|NN ,|, local|JJ leaders|NNS sought|VBN to|TO rediscover|VB their|PRP$ native|JJ roots|NNS and|CC redefine|VB what|WP it|PRP meant|VBD to|TO be|VB a|DT part|NN of|IN indigenous|JJ culture|NN .|. 
Pan-Mayanism|NNP in|IN particular|NN has|VBZ sought|VBN to|TO organize|VB itself|PRP around|IN the|DT Mayan|JJ language|NN ;|: despite|IN local|JJ dialectical|JJ differences|NNS ,|, it|PRP is|VBZ seen|VBN as|IN the|DT unifying|JJ force|NN behind|IN the|DT diverse|JJ Mayan|JJ people|NNS .|. 
Most|JJS still|RB speak|VB it|PRP in|IN various|JJ forms|NNS ,|, and|CC efforts|NNS by|IN Mayan|JJ linguists|NNS to|TO standardize|VB the|DT language|NN are|VBP producing|VBG a|DT coherent|JJ ,|, modern|JJ version|NN of|IN Maya|NNP (|( England|NNP 2003|CD :|: 733|CD ,|, 739|CD )|) .|. 
Pan-Mayanism|NNP has|VBZ succeeded|VBN in|IN part|NN due|JJ to|TO its|PRP$ focus|NN on|IN issues|NNS of|IN ethnicity|NN ;|: it|PRP largely|RB avoids|VBZ specifically|RB political|JJ overtones|NNS ,|, instead|RB concentrating|VBG on|IN the|DT development|NN of|IN the|DT reemerging|VBG Mayan|JJ culture|NN (|( England|NNP 2003|CD :|: 734|CD )|) .|. 
The|DT popular|JJ left|VBD ,|, however|RB ,|, continues|VBZ to|TO see|VB the|DT rhetoric|NN of|IN ethnic|JJ rights|NNS as|IN a|DT politically|RB viable|JJ tool|NN .|. 
It|PRP therefore|RB often|RB invokes|VBZ the|DT banner|NN of|IN indigenous|JJ rights|NNS in|IN its|PRP$ own|JJ discourse|NN .|. 
The|DT Pan-Mayan|JJ movement|NN thus|RB benefits|VBZ from|IN the|DT lasting|JJ influence|NN of|IN the|DT popular|JJ left|VBN on|IN Guatemalan|NNP governmental|JJ policies|NNS without|IN risking|VBG drawing|VBG the|DT (|( often|RB negative|JJ )|) attention|NN of|IN the|DT government|NN (|( England|NNP 2003|CD :|: 735|CD ,|, Warren|NNP 2003|CD :|: 181|CD )|) .|. 
A|DT main|JJ concern|NN among|IN pan-Mayanists|NNPS is|VBZ the|DT reversal|NN of|IN the|DT long|JJ -|- seated|VBN inferiority|NN complex|NN of|IN the|DT Mayan|JJ people|NNS ;|: despite|IN their|PRP$ position|NN as|IN majority|NN within|IN the|DT Guatemalan|NNP population|NN ,|, they|PRP remain|VBP impoverished|VBN and|CC marginalized|JJ on|IN the|DT fridge|NN of|IN society|NN .|. 
This|DT results|NNS in|IN part|NN from|IN the|DT ingrained|JJ influences|NNS of|IN Spanish|JJ colonialism|NN :|: Spanish|JJ continues|VBZ to|TO be|VB associated|VBN with|IN modernity|NN and|CC social|JJ mobility|NN ,|, whereas|IN Maya|NNP is|VBZ seen|VBN as|RB backward|RB and|CC inferior|JJ .|. 
Pan-Mayan|JJ leaders|NNS therefore|RB seek|VBP to|TO develop|VB a|DT return|NN to|TO Maya|NNP as|IN it|PRP was|VBD in|IN its|PRP$ classical|JJ renaissance|NN ,|, a|DT language|NN of|IN power|NN and|CC prestige|NN (|( England|NNP 2003|CD :|: 736|CD )|) .|. 
By|IN doing|VBG so|IN they|PRP hope|VBP to|TO inculcate|NN among|IN the|DT Mayan|JJ peoples|NNS a|DT renewed|VBN sense|NN of|IN pride|NN which|WDT will|MD in|IN turn|VB reverse|VB the|DT dogma|NN of|IN Spanish|JJ superiority|NN .|. 

Colombia|NNP ,|, in|IN contrast|NN ,|, has|VBZ no|DT unified|JJ "|'' pan-|NN Indian|JJ "|'' sentiments|NNS ;|: the|DT indigenous|JJ population|NN is|VBZ a|DT small|JJ fraction|NN of|IN the|DT overall|JJ population|NN ,|, a|DT fractured|JJ entity|NN divided|VBN by|IN region|NN and|CC language|NN .|. 
Several|JJ competing|VBG and|CC oftentimes|NNS conflicting|JJ indigenous|JJ rights|NNS advocacy|NN groups|NNS have|VBP developed|VBN :|: the|DT ONIC|NNP poses|VBZ itself|PRP as|IN the|DT sole|JJ pan-|NN Indian|JJ group|NN ,|, yet|RB lacks|VBZ legitimacy|NN in|IN the|DT eyes|NNS of|IN many|JJ indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS (|( Jackson|NNP 2002|CD :|: 83|CD ,|, 85|CD )|) .|. 
The|DT CRIC|NNP ,|, which|WDT focuses|VBZ on|IN language|NN development|NN and|CC renewal|NN ,|, is|VBZ primarily|RB representative|NN of|IN the|DT Nasa|NNP peoples|NNS (|( Jackson|NNP 2003|CD :|: 82|CD )|) .|. 
It|PRP often|RB stands|VBZ in|IN conflict|NN with|IN the|DT AICO|NNP ,|, its|PRP$ Guambiano|NNP counterpart|NN (|( Jackson|NNP 2003|CD :|: 83|CD -|- 84|CD )|) .|. 
Whereas|IN the|DT Mayanists|NNP benefit|NN from|IN a|DT single|JJ main|JJ identity|NN ,|, those|DT of|IN Colombia|NNP must|MD operate|VB under|IN historical|JJ differences|NNS between|IN the|DT various|JJ ethnic|JJ groups|NNS (|( Jackson|NNP 2002|CD :|: 109|CD )|) .|. 
The|DT Nasa|NNP and|CC Guambiano|NNP have|VBP stood|VBN in|IN opposition|NN since|IN pre-colonial|JJ times|NNS ;|: therefore|RB any|DT coalition|NN between|IN the|DT two|CD advocacy|NN groups|NNS is|VBZ tenuous|JJ at|IN best|JJS (|( Rappaport|NNP 2005|CD :|: 2|CD )|) .|. 
This|DT reflects|VBZ a|DT desire|NN among|IN the|DT peoples|NNS themselves|PRP to|TO maintain|VB distinct|JJ ethnic|JJ identities|NNS ,|, both|DT from|IN the|DT Spanish|JJ Colombian|JJ population|NN and|CC each|DT other|JJ .|. 
In|IN the|DT 1990s|NN the|DT rhetoric|NN of|IN "|'' cultural|JJ diversity|NN "|'' was|VBD picked|VBN up|RP the|DT Colombian|JJ media|NNS ,|, and|CC subsequently|RB entered|VBD the|DT consciousness|NN of|IN the|DT greater|JJR metropolitan|JJ public|NN ,|, thereby|RB cementing|VBG its|PRP$ place|NN in|IN Colombian|JJ society|NN as|IN necessity|NN and|CC further|JJ complicating|VBG the|DT role|NN of|IN indigenous|JJ movements|NNS in|IN gaining|VBG rights|NNS for|IN indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS as|IN a|DT whole|NN .|. 

A|DT major|JJ success|NN in|IN the|DT Colombian|JJ saga|NN is|VBZ the|DT revamped|VBN constitution|NN of|IN 1991|CD ,|, which|WDT includes|VBZ a|DT section|NN on|IN indigenous|JJ rights|NNS ,|, as|IN the|DT Congress|NNP which|WDT drafted|VBD it|PRP included|VBD representatives|NNS from|IN native|JJ groups|NNS (|( Gow|NNP and|CC Rappaport|NNP 2002|CD :|: 57|CD )|) .|. 
Central|NNP is|VBZ a|DT return|NN to|TO the|DT old|JJ land|NN grant|NN system|NN stemming|VBG from|IN the|DT repartimentos|NNS of|IN the|DT colonial|NN era|NN along|IN with|IN judicial|JJ sovereignty|NN .|. 
While|IN the|DT repartimento|NN was|VBD originally|RB used|VBN to|TO repress|NNS the|DT indigenous|JJ groups|NNS ,|, it|PRP is|VBZ now|RB used|VBN to|TO support|VB them|PRP :|: resguardos|NNS ,|, or|CC communally|RB owned|VBN plots|NNS of|IN land|NN ,|, are|VBP granted|VBN to|TO communities|NNS .|. 
They|PRP are|VBP ruled|VBN by|IN the|DT cabildo|NN ,|, local|JJ governing|NN boards|NNS formed|VBN of|IN community|NN leaders|NNS (|( Gow|NNP and|CC Rappaport|NNP 2002|CD :|: 51|CD -|- 52|CD )|) .|. 
The|DT return|NN to|TO customary|JJ law|NN reflects|VBZ a|DT substantial|JJ shift|NN in|IN indigenous|JJ identity|NN :|: 
no|RB longer|RB ruled|VBN by|IN Western|JJ laws|NNS and|CC discourse|NN ,|, communities|NNS are|VBP forced|VBN to|TO assess|VB the|DT efficacy|NN of|IN their|PRP$ old|JJ judicial|JJ systems|NNS in|IN light|NN of|IN the|DT modern|JJ era|NN .|. 
The|DT oral|JJ nature|NN of|IN jurisprudence|NN directly|RB conflicts|NNS with|IN the|DT desire|NN of|IN the|DT Colombian|JJ government|NN to|TO codify|NN law|NN ,|, and|CC questions|NNS of|IN human|JJ rights|NNS violations|NNS are|VBP common|JJ as|IN punishments|NNS are|VBP often|RB corporal|NN in|IN nature|NN (|( Gow|NNP and|CC Rappaport|NNP 2002|CD :|: 57|CD -|- 58|CD )|) .|. 

The|DT Colombian|JJ constitution|NN stands|VBZ in|IN stark|JJ contrast|NN to|TO the|DT failure|NN of|IN the|DT Guatemalan|NNP indigenous|JJ rights|NNS referendum|NN of|IN 1999|CD .|. 
Mayans|NNP gained|VBD formal|JJ recognition|NN in|IN 1995|CD as|IN the|DT majority|NN population|NN in|IN a|DT precursor|NN to|TO the|DT 1996|CD peace|NN accord|NN ;|: by|IN 1999|CD its|PRP$ government|NN floated|VBD a|DT referendum|NN on|IN an|DT indigenous|JJ bill|NN of|IN rights|NNS resembling|VBG that|WDT codified|VBN in|IN the|DT Colombian|JJ constitution|NN (|( Warren|NNP 2002|CD :|: 157|CD -|- 158|CD )|) .|. 
It|PRP failed|VBD ,|, despite|IN the|DT Mayan|JJ majority|NN ;|: possible|JJ reasons|NNS include|VBP the|DT overwhelming|JJ illiteracy|NN rates|NNS among|IN the|DT indigenous|JJ population|NN and|CC inaccessibility|NN of|IN voting|NN stations|NNS (|( Warren|NNP 2002|CD :|: 149|CD ,|, 151|CD )|) .|. 
However|RB ,|, it|PRP reflects|VBZ on|IN a|DT greater|JJR level|NN both|DT the|DT desire|NN of|IN many|JJ Mayans|NNP to|TO assimilate|VB ,|, as|IN they|PRP still|RB feel|VBP that|WDT is|VBZ necessary|JJ for|IN social|JJ mobility|NN ,|, and|CC a|DT belief|NN among|IN the|DT general|JJ population|NN that|IN Mayans|NNP do|VBP not|RB require|VB a|DT separate|JJ bill|NN of|IN rights|NNS as|IN they|PRP are|VBP covered|VBN under|IN the|DT general|JJ rights|NNS already|RB in|IN the|DT constitution|NN (|( Warren|NNP 2002|CD :|: 159|CD ,|, 172|CD )|) .|. 
Illiteracy|NNP rates|NNS are|VBP in|IN fact|NN correlated|JJ with|IN the|DT Mayan|JJ language|NN itself|PRP :|: those|DT who|WP speak|VBP Spanish|JJ are|VBP more|RBR likely|JJ to|TO be|VB literate|NN than|IN those|DT who|WP speak|VBP Mayan|JJ alone|RB (|( England|NNP 2003|CD :|: 733|CD )|) .|. 
Nonetheless|RB ,|, in|IN 2003|CD the|DT legislature|NN passed|VBD the|DT law|NN of|IN national|JJ languages|NNS ,|, which|WDT while|IN reaffirming|VBG Spanish|JJ as|IN the|DT official|JJ language|NN ,|, recognizes|VBZ the|DT importance|NN of|IN indigenous|JJ languages|NNS as|IN part|NN of|IN national|JJ identity|NN and|CC encourages|VBZ their|PRP$ active|JJ promotion|NN .|. 
While|IN largely|RB symbolic|JJ ,|, it|PRP is|VBZ still|RB significant|JJ in|IN that|DT Guatemalan|NNP identity|NN is|VBZ seen|VBN as|IN encompassing|VBG languages|NNS other|JJ than|IN Spanish|JJ .|. 

This|DT question|NN of|IN identity|NN as|IN defined|VBN by|IN language|NN manifests|NNS differently|RB in|IN Guatemala|NNP and|CC Colombia|NNP .|. 
Within|IN the|DT pan-|NN Mayan|JJ movement|NN ,|, there|EX remains|VBZ a|DT desire|NN to|TO maintain|VB linguistic|JJ diversity|NN :|: some|DT view|NN the|DT reduction|NN of|IN their|PRP$ language|NN to|TO the|DT status|NN of|IN "|'' dialect|NN "|'' devalues|NNS their|PRP$ unique|JJ identity|NN and|CC place|NN in|IN the|DT Mayan|JJ world|NN ;|: however|RB ,|, despite|IN differences|NNS over|IN standardization|NN ,|, the|DT pan-|NN Mayan|JJ movement|NN itself|PRP is|VBZ largely|RB cohesive|JJ .|. 
In|IN contrast|NN ,|, Colombian|JJ indigenous|JJ groups|NNS are|VBP divided|VBN to|TO the|DT extent|NN that|IN linguistic|JJ diversity|NN is|VBZ not|RB only|RB valued|VBN ,|, but|CC serves|VBZ to|TO split|VB the|DT population|NN ,|, both|DT between|IN groups|NNS and|CC within|IN groups|NNS themselves|PRP .|. 
An|DT example|NN is|VBZ the|DT Tukanoans|NNP :|: while|IN considered|VBD a|DT single|JJ “|NN ethnic|JJ group|NN ”|NN ,|, they|PRP maintain|VBP 16|CD distinct|JJ language|NN groups|NNS and|CC practice|VB linguistic|JJ exogamy|NN ,|, in|IN which|WDT members|NNS of|IN one|CD language|NN group|NN must|MD marry|VB into|IN another|DT (|( Jackson|NNP 1995|CD :|: 4|CD )|) .|. 

Language|NNP further|JJ works|VBZ to|TO establish|VB identity|NN by|IN encapsulating|VBG a|DT worldview|NN markedly|RB removed|VBD from|IN that|DT of|IN the|DT dominant|JJ Western|JJ culture|NN .|. 
Indigenous|NNP cosmology|NN ,|, or|CC “|NN cosmovision|NN ”|NN ,|, is|VBZ difficult|JJ to|TO translate|VB into|IN Romanticized|NNP languages|NNS ;|: it|PRP maintains|VBZ a|DT concept|NN of|IN culture|NN ,|, defined|VBN as|IN “|NN the|DT form|NN of|IN behavior|NN resulting|VBG from|IN a|DT permanent|JJ harmonic|JJ relationship|NN with|IN Nature|NNP ”|NN (|( Gow|NNP and|CC Rappaport|NNP 2002|CD :|: 58|CD )|) and|CC view|NN of|IN history|NN as|IN cyclic|JJ that|WDT is|VBZ often|RB at|IN odds|NNS with|IN Western|JJ modes|NNS of|IN thought|VBD .|. 
Conflict|NNP between|IN cultures|NNS arise|VBP as|IN cosmovision|NN is|VBZ rediscovered|JJ and|CC developed|VBN ,|, often|RB by|IN native|JJ shamans|NNS in|IN tandem|JJ with|IN indigenous|JJ leaders|NNS aided|VBN by|IN outside|JJ researchers|NNS and|CC non-governmental|JJ organizations|NNS .|. 
The|DT differences|NNS between|IN Western|NNP and|CC native|JJ perceptions|NNS then|RB lead|VBP to|TO conflict|NN within|IN the|DT revitalization|NN movements|NNS themselves|PRP :|: the|DT question|NN of|IN embracing|VBG Western|JJ law|NN and|CC discourse|NN is|VBZ continually|RB grappled|VBD with|IN .|. 
It|PRP is|VBZ necessary|JJ to|TO work|VB within|IN the|DT national|JJ legal|JJ system|NN in|IN order|NN to|TO gain|VB policy|NN reform|NN beyond|IN the|DT local|JJ level|NN ;|: however|RB ,|, with|IN widely|RB differing|VBG concepts|NNS of|IN justice|NN a|DT a|DT balance|NN is|VBZ difficult|JJ to|TO achieve|VB .|. 
Customary|NNP law|NN in|IN Colombia|NNP contrasts|VBZ with|IN Western|JJ law|NN as|IN it|PRP maintains|VBZ a|DT different|JJ perception|NN of|IN casual|JJ relationships|NNS :|: tying|VBG back|RB to|TO the|DT indigenous|JJ concept|NN of|IN harmony|NN ,|, crimes|NNS are|VBP viewed|VBN as|IN imbalances|NNS in|IN the|DT community|NN 's|POS harmony|NN and|CC can|MD often|RB be|VB traced|VBN back|RB to|TO those|DT who|WP did|VBD not|RB perpetuate|VB the|DT crime|NN ,|, but|CC may|MD have|VB influenced|VBN the|DT accused|VBN to|TO do|VB so|RB .|. 
When|WRB a|DT punishment|NN -|- often|RB public|NN and|CC corporal|NN in|IN nature|NN -|- is|VBZ carried|VBN out|IN ,|, the|DT group|NN feels|VBZ the|DT effects|NNS as|IN a|DT whole|NN .|. 
Shamans|NNP often|RB sit|VBP with|IN the|DT criminal|NN as|IN he|PRP fills|VBZ his|PRP$ sentence|NN ,|, sharing|VBG in|IN their|PRP$ ordeal|NN .|. 
(|( Rappaport|NNP 2005|CD )|) Once|RB punishments|NNS are|VBP completed|VBN ,|, the|DT criminal|NN is|VBZ seen|VBN as|IN rehabilitated|VBN ,|, having|VBG fulfilled|VBN his|PRP$ duty|NN to|TO restore|VB harmonic|JJ order|NN ,|, and|CC is|VBZ welcomed|VBN back|RB into|IN the|DT community|NN (|( Gow|NNP and|CC Rappaport|NNP 2002|CD :|: 61|CD ,|, Rappaport|NNP 2005|CD :|: 97|CD )|) .|. 

Translation|NN of|IN law|NN into|IN native|JJ languages|NNS has|VBZ proved|VBN to|TO be|VB a|DT difficult|JJ task|NN ,|, as|IN Western|JJ ideas|NNS often|RB have|VBP no|DT parallel|NN in|IN indigenous|JJ cosmovision|NN .|. 
The|DT translation|NN of|IN the|DT Colombian|JJ constitution|NN sparked|VBD the|DT development|NN of|IN neologisms|NNS ,|, as|IN the|DT goal|NN of|IN the|DT translators|NNS was|VBD not|RB to|TO provide|VB a|DT direct|JJ translation|NN of|IN the|DT constitution|NN ,|, but|CC to|TO recapture|VB its|PRP$ spirit|NN in|IN a|DT native|NN ,|, rather|RB than|IN Western|JJ discourse|NN (|( Gow|NNP and|CC Rappaport|NNP 2002|CD :|: 58|CD 59|CD )|) .|. 
This|DT provides|VBZ a|DT second|JJ interpretation|NN of|IN law|NN distinct|JJ from|IN that|DT of|IN the|DT Spanish|JJ Colombian|JJ culture|NN ,|, and|CC in|IN turn|NN an|DT interpretation|NN aligned|VBN with|IN native|JJ ideology|NN for|IN the|DT cabildos|NNS to|TO follow|VB when|WRB governing|VBG (|( Rappaport|NNP 2005|CD :|: 93|CD ,|, 236|CD )|) .|. 
Translation|NN fulfills|VBZ another|DT vital|JJ role|NN ,|, as|IN it|PRP is|VBZ employed|VBN in|IN the|DT rediscovery|NN of|IN the|DT indigenous|JJ identity|NN itself|PRP .|. 
Workshops|NNP and|CC advocacy|NN groups|NNS regularly|RB work|VBP to|TO translate|VB native|JJ histories|NNS back|RB into|IN native|JJ forms|NNS of|IN knowledge|NN ,|, distancing|VBG them|PRP from|IN the|DT Western|NNP influences|VBZ that|WDT have|VBP invaded|VBD over|IN the|DT past|JJ six|CD centuries|NNS .|. 
The|DT Guambiano|NNP history|NN project|NN charts|NNS native|JJ history|NN as|IN the|DT outward|RB spiraling|VBG events|NNS which|WDT are|VBP both|DT cyclic|JJ and|CC parallel|JJ in|IN nature|NN ;|: Mayan|JJ historians|NNS translate|VBP and|CC document|VB oral|JJ histories|NNS whose|WP$ legacy|NN is|VBZ in|IN danger|NN of|IN being|VBG forgotten|VBN (|( Rappaport|NNP 2005|CD :|: 165|CD )|) .|. 

This|DT attempt|NN to|TO regain|VB identity|NN via|IN translation|NN is|VBZ indicative|JJ of|IN the|DT intimate|JJ relationship|NN between|IN indigenous|JJ revitalization|NN within|IN a|DT modern|JJ context|NN and|CC native|JJ language|NN use|NN .|. 
Difficulties|NNP arise|VB ,|, however|RB ,|, as|IN conflicts|NNS between|IN the|DT traditional|JJ and|CC modern|JJ and|CC native|JJ languages|NNS and|CC Spanish|JJ develop|VB .|. 
Many|JJ native|JJ peoples|NNS in|IN Colombia|NNP are|VBP monolingual|NN Spanish|JJ speakers|NNS ,|, raising|VBG the|DT question|NN of|IN the|DT practicality|NN of|IN indigenous|JJ language|NN use|NN .|. 
The|DT differences|NNS between|IN cosmovision|NN in|IN Spanish|JJ and|CC indigenous|JJ languages|NNS are|VBP great|JJ ,|, leading|VBG to|TO the|DT difficulty|NN of|IN governing|VBG in|IN Spanish|JJ yet|RB embracing|VBG indigenous|JJ mode|NN of|IN thought|VBD .|. 
In|IN addition|NN ,|, there|EX exists|VBZ a|DT complex|JJ relationship|NN between|IN what|WP are|VBP perceived|VBN as|IN different|JJ levels|NNS of|IN indigenous|JJ identity|NN ;|: the|DT Nasa|NNP ,|, for|IN example|NN ,|, divide|VBP themselves|PRP into|IN the|DT traditional|JJ ,|, modern|JJ ,|, and|CC new|JJ .|. 
The|DT authenticity|NN of|IN the|DT modern|JJ Nasa|NNP ,|, who|WP are|VBP often|RB metropolitan|JJ Spanish|JJ speakers|NNS attempting|VBG to|TO reconnect|VB with|IN their|PRP$ roots|NNS ,|, is|VBZ brought|VBN into|IN question|NN by|IN the|DT traditional|JJ ,|, who|WP speak|VBP Nasa|NNP Yuwe|NNP and|CC lead|VB a|DT rural|JJ existence|NN (|( Rappaport|NNP 2005|CD )|) .|. 
In|IN Guatemala|NNP the|DT fact|NN remains|VBZ that|IN Spanish|JJ is|VBZ the|DT gateway|NN to|TO social|JJ mobility|NN ;|: years|NNS of|IN conflict|NN and|CC refugee|NN status|NN have|VBP established|VBN the|DT desire|NN to|TO leave|VB a|DT rural|JJ way|NN of|IN life|NN for|IN an|DT updated|VBN urban|JJ one|CD ,|, and|CC those|DT literate|NN in|IN Spanish|JJ have|VBP the|DT tools|NNS to|TO do|VB so|RB .|. 
Illiteracy|NNP and|CC poverty|NN is|VBZ associated|VBN with|IN Maya|NNP ;|: thus|RB there|EX is|VBZ the|DT conflict|NN between|IN the|DT desire|NN to|TO recapture|VB the|DT unique|JJ Mayan|JJ identity|NN via|IN the|DT language|NN and|CC the|DT need|NN to|TO improve|VB living|VBG conditions|NNS ,|, which|WDT most|RBS often|RB occurs|VBZ under|IN Spanish|JJ influence|NN .|. 

A|DT further|JJ complication|NN is|VBZ the|DT necessity|NN of|IN establishing|VBG authentic|JJ “|NN Indianness|NNP ”|NN ,|, both|DT in|IN the|DT eyes|NNS of|IN fellow|NN indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS and|CC the|DT outside|JJ Spanish|JJ culture|NN .|. 
The|DT ONIC|NNP of|IN Colombia|NNP lacks|VBZ legitimacy|NN precisely|RB because|IN it|PRP is|VBZ perceived|VBN as|RB not|RB “|NN Indian|JJ enough|JJ ”|NN ;|: it|PRP embraces|VBZ the|DT use|NN of|IN Spanish|JJ and|CC Western|JJ discourse|NN ,|, leading|VBG to|TO distrust|NN among|IN indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS (|( Jackson|NNP 2002|CD :|: 85|CD )|) .|. 
Politicians|NNS make|VBP a|DT point|NN of|IN appearing|VBG in|IN their|PRP$ native|JJ dress|NN and|CC speaking|VBG in|IN their|PRP$ native|JJ language|NN in|IN assembly|NN ,|, even|RB if|IN they|PRP are|VBP more|JJR at|IN home|NN in|IN a|DT business|NN suit|NN and|CC speaking|VBG Spanish|JJ ;|: indigenous|JJ identity|NN has|VBZ become|VBN a|DT calling|VBG card|NN to|TO the|DT extent|NN that|IN at|IN times|NNS it|PRP appears|VBZ to|TO be|VB a|DT caricature|VB of|IN itself|PRP .|. 
The|DT Colombian|JJ constitution|NN is|VBZ problematic|JJ in|IN that|IN it|PRP provides|VBZ little|JJ guide|NN as|IN to|TO what|WP exactly|RB forms|VBZ an|DT indigenous|JJ group|NN ;|: the|DT concept|NN of|IN culture|NN is|VBZ so|RB complex|JJ and|CC divergent|JJ that|IN establishing|VBG self|NN -|- determination|NN in|IN the|DT eyes|NNS of|IN the|DT Colombian|JJ government|NN requires|VBZ emphasizing|VBG differences|NNS .|. 
Efforts|NNS towards|IN development|NN ,|, then|RB ,|, cannot|NN endanger|VB traditional|JJ culture|NN and|CC values|NNS ,|, for|IN fear|NN of|IN losing|VBG cultural|JJ legitimacy|NN (|( Jackson|NNP 1995|CD :|: 5|CD )|) .|. 
There|EX develops|VBZ a|DT duality|NN in|IN native|JJ culture|NN ;|: for|IN example|NN ,|, many|JJ Nasa|NNP children|NNS receive|VBP instruction|NN in|IN Nasa|NNP Yuwe|NNP yet|RB converse|NN in|IN Spanish|JJ outside|IN the|DT classroom|NN .|. 
An|DT emphasis|NN on|IN preserving|VBG ,|, rather|RB than|IN practicing|VBG ,|, native|JJ culture|NN arises|VBZ :|: indigenous|JJ authenticity|NN is|VBZ maintained|VBN by|IN sustaining|VBG knowledge|NN of|IN traditional|JJ practices|NNS and|CC beliefs|NNS without|IN fully|RB embracing|VBG them|PRP on|IN a|DT day|NN -|- to|TO -|- day|NN basis|NN (|( Gow|NNP and|CC Rappaport|NNP 2002|CD :|: 66|CD -|- 67|CD )|) .|. 

This|DT intersection|NN of|IN language|NN and|CC indigenous|JJ identity|NN poses|VBZ challenges|NNS which|WDT have|VBP yet|RB to|TO be|VB fully|RB addressed|VBN .|. 
In|IN Guatemala|NNP ,|, they|PRP are|VBP largely|RB comprised|VBN of|IN the|DT conflict|NN between|IN poverty|NN and|CC progress|NN ;|: the|DT pan-|NN Mayan|JJ movement|NN must|MD meet|VB the|DT dual|JJ trials|NNS of|IN establishing|VBG a|DT positive|JJ identity|NN within|IN the|DT Mayan|JJ population|NN itself|PRP and|CC legitimacy|NN in|IN the|DT legal|JJ and|CC political|JJ arenas|NNS in|IN order|NN to|TO gain|VB policy|NN reforms|NNS and|CC codified|VBN rights|NNS in|IN law|NN .|. 
In|IN Colombia|NNP ,|, legal|JJ successes|NNS have|VBP often|RB come|VB about|IN due|JJ to|TO the|DT Colombian|JJ government|NN 's|POS recognition|NN of|IN the|DT political|JJ viability|NN of|IN the|DT rhetoric|NN of|IN indigenous|JJ rights|NNS ;|: by|IN granting|VBG indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS judicial|JJ sovereignty|NN they|PRP hope|VBP to|TO win|VB the|DT trust|NN of|IN a|DT people|NNS who|WP view|VBP the|DT government|NN as|IN incapable|JJ of|IN protecting|VBG them|PRP from|IN the|DT ongoing|JJ civil|JJ strife|NN ,|, and|CC by|IN giving|VBG them|PRP blocks|VBZ of|IN land|NN they|PRP hope|VBP that|IN the|DT indigenous|JJ community|NN will|MD be|VB able|JJ to|TO keep|VB out|IN drug|NN traffickers|NNS and|CC guerrillas|NNS where|WRB the|DT government|NN itself|PRP has|VBZ not|RB (|( Jackson|NNP 1995|CD :|: 8|CD )|) .|. 
Regardless|RB of|IN the|DT ulterior|NN motives|NNS behind|IN their|PRP$ legal|JJ status|NN ,|, indigenous|JJ peoples|NNS in|IN Colombia|NNP now|RB possess|VBP the|DT rights|NNS to|TO teach|VB and|CC govern|VB in|IN their|PRP$ own|JJ languages|NNS according|VBG to|TO their|PRP$ own|JJ laws|NNS (|( Jackson|NNP 1995|CD :|: 5|CD )|) .|. 
Conflicts|NNP arise|VB due|JJ to|TO internal|JJ differences|NNS and|CC the|DT ever|RB -|- persist|VB problem|NN of|IN defining|VBG indigenous|JJ identity|NN and|CC authenticity|NN in|IN a|DT pluralistic|JJ linguistic|JJ environment|NN .|. 

Works|NNP Cited|VBN Gow|NNP ,|, David|NNP D.|NN and|CC Joanne|NNP Rappaport|NNP .|. 2002|CD .|. “|NN The|DT Indigenous|NNP Public|NNP Voice|NNP :|: The|DT Multiple|NNP Idioms|NNP of|IN Modernity|NNP .|. ”|NN in|IN Indigenous|NNP Movements|NNP ,|, Self|NNP -|- Representation|NNP ,|, and|CC the|DT State|NNP in|IN Latin|NNP America|NNP .|. Kay|NNP B.|NN Warren|NNP and|CC Jean|NNP E.|NN Jackson|NNP ,|, ed.|NN Pp.47|NN -|- 80|CD .|. Austin|NNP :|: University|NNP of|IN Texas|NNP Press|NNP .|. 
England|NNP ,|, Nora|NNP C.|NN 2003|CD .|. “|NN Mayan|JJ Language|NNP Revival|NNP and|CC Revitalization|NNP Politics|NNS :|: Linguists|NNP and|CC Linguistic|NNP Ideologies|NNP .|. ”|NN American|NNP Ethnologist|NNP 105|CD (|( 4|CD )|) :|: 733|CD -|- 743|CD .|. 
Jackson|NNP ,|, Jean|NNP E.|NN 1995|CD .|. “|NN Culture|NNP ,|, Genuine|NNP and|CC Spurious|NNP :|: The|DT Politics|NNS of|IN Indianness|NNP in|IN the|DT Vaupes|NNP ,|, Colombia|NNP .|. ”|NN American|NNP Ethnologist|NNP 22|CD (|( 1|CD )|) :|: 3|CD -|- 27|CD .|. 
ibid|NN .|. 2002|CD .|. “|NN Contested|NNP Discourses|NNP of|IN Authority|NNP in|IN Colombian|JJ National|NNP Indigenous|NNP Politics|NNS :|: The|DT 1996|CD Summer|NNPS Takeovers|NNP .|. ”|NN in|IN Indigenous|NNP Movements|NNP ,|, Self|NNP -|- Representation|NNP ,|, and|CC the|DT State|NNP in|IN Latin|NNP America|NNP .|. Kay|NNP B.|NN Warren|NNP and|CC Jean|NNP E.|NN Jackson|NNP ,|, ed.|NN Pp.81-122|NN .|. Austin|NNP :|: University|NNP of|IN Texas|NNP Press|NNP .|. 
Rappaport|NNP ,|, Joanne|NNP .|. 2005|CD .|. Intercultural|NNP Utopias|NNP .|. Durham|NNP :|: Duke|NNP University|NNP Press|NNP .|. 
Warren|NNP ,|, Kay|NNP B.|NN 1978|CD .|. The|DT Symbolism|NNP of|IN Subordination|NNP .|. Austin|NNP :|: University|NNP of|IN Texas|NNP Press|NNP .|. 
ibid|NN .|. 1993|CD .|. “|NN La|NNP Violencia|NNP in|IN Guatemala|NNP .|. ”|NN in|IN The|DT Violence|NNP Within|IN .|. Kay|NNP B.|NN Warren|NNP ,|, ed.|NN Pp|NNP .|. 25|CD -|- 56|CD .|. Boulder|NNP :|: Westview|NNP Press|NNP .|. 
ibid|NN .|. 2002|CD .|. “|NN Voting|NNP Against|IN Indigenous|NNP Rights|NNP in|IN Guatemala|NNP :|: Lessons|NNP from|IN the|DT 1996|CD Referendum|NNP .|. ”|NN in|IN Indigenous|NNP Movements|NNP ,|, Self|NNP -|- Representation|NNP ,|, and|CC the|DT State|NNP in|IN Latin|NNP America|NNP .|. Kay|NNP B.|NN Warren|NNP and|CC Jean|NNP E.|NN Jackson|NNP ,|, ed.|NN Pp.149|NN -|- 180|CD .|. Austin|NNP :|: University|NNP of|IN Texas|NNP Press|NNP .|. 
ibid|NN .|. 2003|CD .|. “|NN Pan-|NNP Mayan|JJ Activism|NNP in|IN Guatemala|NNP .|. ”|NN in|IN Contemporary|NNP Indigenous|NNP Movements|NNP in|IN Latin|NNP America|NNP .|. Erick|NNP D.|NN Langer|NNP and|CC Elena|NNP Munoz|NNP ,|, ed.|NN Pp|NNP .|. 169|CD -|- 184|CD .|. Wilmington|NNP :|: Scholarly|NNP Resources|NNPS .|. 
