The|DT Decline|NNP of|IN the|DT Northeastern|NNP Ohio|NNP Steel|NNP Market|NNP :|: Why|WRB Did|VBD Attempts|NNS by|IN Union|NNP Leaders|NNP and|CC Concerned|VBN Citizens|NNPS to|TO Revive|NNP the|DT Steel|NNP Industry|NNP Ultimately|RB Fail|NNP ?|. An|DT Extended|NNP Essay|NNP in|IN History|NN By|IN Philosophy|NN E.|NN Walker|NNP Candidate|NNP Number|NNP :|: xxxxxxxxx|NN Supervisor|NNP :|: Alexis|NNP Mamaux|NNP Date|NN :|: January|NNP 12|CD ,|, 2004|CD Word|NNP Count|VBP :|: 3215|CD United|NNP World|NNP College|NNP of|IN the|DT American|NNP West|NNP Montezuma|NNP ,|, NM|NNP 87731|CD USA|NNP September|NNP 19|CD ,|, 1977|CD is|VBZ a|DT date|NN that|IN few|JJ people|NNS in|IN Youngstown|NNP ,|, Ohio|NNP will|MD ever|RB forget|VB .|. 
On|IN that|DT date|NN Jennings|NNP Lambeth|NNP ,|, president|NN of|IN Youngstown|NNP Sheet|NNP and|CC Tube|NNP Company|NNP ,|, announced|VBD that|IN most|JJS of|IN the|DT steel|NN company|NN ’|NN s|VBZ Campbell|NNP Works|NNP would|MD close|VB .|. 
Although|IN for|IN other|JJ cities|NNS this|DT would|MD simply|RB be|VB a|DT minor|JJ economic|JJ setback|NN ,|, for|IN the|DT people|NNS of|IN Youngstown|NNP and|CC the|DT surrounding|VBG area|NN ,|, it|PRP meant|VBD disaster|NN .|. 
Mahoning|NNP County|NNP was|VBD a|DT one|JJ -|- industry|NN area|NN ,|, and|CC the|DT people|NNS of|IN Youngstown|NNP ,|, Struthers|NNP ,|, Campbell|NNP ,|, Boardman|NNP Township|NNP ,|, and|CC the|DT numerous|JJ other|JJ small|JJ towns|NNS and|CC villages|NNS in|IN the|DT area|NN only|RB had|VBD one|CD main|JJ employer|NN :|: the|DT steel|NN mills|NNS .|. 
The|DT events|NNS that|WDT would|MD follow|VB this|DT date|NN (|( known|VBN as|IN Black|NNP Monday|NNP )|) are|VBP seen|VBN by|IN the|DT people|NNS who|WP witnessed|VBN them|PRP either|CC as|IN stories|NNS of|IN great|JJ courage|NN and|CC determination|NN or|CC as|IN monuments|NNS to|TO human|JJ failure|NN and|CC false|JJ hope|NN .|. 
Rather|RB than|IN sit|VB back|RB and|CC wait|VB for|IN their|PRP$ jobs|NNS to|TO be|VB snatched|VBN away|RB ,|, the|DT workers|NNS and|CC local|JJ union|NN members|NNS in|IN the|DT mills|NNS fought|VBD long|JJ and|CC hard|JJ to|TO be|VB able|JJ to|TO keep|VB the|DT factories|NNS open|JJ .|. 
Petitions|NNP ,|, protests|VBZ ,|, rallies|NNS ,|, collectivization|NN ,|, and|CC even|RB the|DT takeover|NN of|IN a|DT steel|NN company|NN ’|NN s|VBZ headquarters|NN were|VBD all|DT attempted|VBD in|IN a|DT desperate|JJ movement|NN by|IN those|DT in|IN the|DT industry|NN to|TO preserve|VB the|DT only|JJ source|NN of|IN employment|NN that|IN this|DT town|NN had|VBD .|. 
These|DT well|RB -|- intentioned|VBN efforts|NNS ultimately|RB failed|VBD ,|, leaving|VBG thousands|NNS with|IN shattered|VBD dreams|NNS and|CC a|DT distinct|JJ lack|NN of|IN trust|NN in|IN fellow|NN humankind|NN .|. 
But|CC why|WRB did|VBD the|DT brave|JJ attempts|NNS by|IN union|NN leaders|NNS and|CC concerned|VBN citizens|NNS to|TO revive|VB the|DT steel|NN industry|NN ultimately|RB fail|VB ?|. 
When|WRB examining|VBG the|DT area|NN ’|NN s|VBZ history|NN ,|, culture|NN ,|, and|CC economic|JJ situation|NN we|PRP can|MD identify|VB four|CD main|JJ reasons|NNS :|: the|DT refusal|NN of|IN the|DT international|JJ leadership|NN of|IN United|NNP Steelworkers|NNPS of|IN America|NNP to|TO support|VB their|PRP$ union|NN ’|NN s|VBZ Youngstown|NNP branch|NN ,|, the|DT lagging|VBG international|JJ steel|NN market|NN ,|, the|DT lack|NN of|IN a|DT clear|JJ ,|, organized|VBN vision|NN for|IN individual|JJ initiatives|NNS such|JJ as|IN the|DT Save|VB Our|PRP$ Valley|NNP Campaign|NNP ,|, and|CC crippling|JJ regionalism|NN which|WDT caused|VBD animosity|NN between|IN different|JJ small|JJ towns|NNS in|IN the|DT region|NN ,|, all|DT contributed|VBD in|IN some|DT way|NN to|TO the|DT failure|NN of|IN the|DT workers|NNS and|CC union|NN leaders|NNS to|TO save|VB the|DT industry|NN .|. 
Most|JJS importantly|RB ,|, the|DT problem|NN in|IN Youngstown|NNP was|VBD a|DT nationwide|JJ problem|NN .|. 
Although|IN it|PRP affected|VBD Youngstown|NNP and|CC the|DT surrounding|VBG area|NN more|JJR than|IN it|PRP affected|VBD other|JJ regions|NNS ,|, the|DT local|JJ people|NNS simply|RB could|MD not|RB solve|VB a|DT national|JJ crisis|NN on|IN a|DT local|JJ level|NN .|. 

A|DT Brief|NNP History|NN of|IN Steel|NNP in|IN Northeastern|NNP Ohio|NNP In|IN 1802|CD James|NNP and|CC Daniel|NNP Heaton|NNP discovered|VBD ore|NN and|CC coal|NN lining|NN Yellow|NNP Creek|NNP in|IN an|DT area|NN outside|IN of|IN Youngstown|NNP known|VBN as|IN Poland|NNP Township|NNP .|. 
Their|PRP$ blast|NN furnace|NN ,|, “|NN Hopewell|NNP ,|, ”|NN was|VBD the|DT very|RB first|JJ blast|NN furnace|NN in|IN the|DT area|NN .|. 
During|IN the|DT Civil|NNP War|NNP ,|, Youngstown|NNP played|VBD a|DT vital|JJ role|NN in|IN supplying|VBG the|DT Union|NNP army|NN with|IN iron|NN products|NNS .|. 
Youngstown|NNP also|RB was|VBD a|DT major|JJ railway|NN crossroads|NNS ,|, due|JJ to|TO its|PRP$ strategic|JJ position|NN between|IN Cleveland|NNP ,|, Pittsburgh|NNP ,|, New|NNP York|NNP ,|, and|CC Chicago|NNP .|. 
In|IN fact|NN ,|, “|NN More|JJR rail|NN cars|NNS passed|VBN under|IN the|DT Center|NNP Street|NNP Bridge|NNP [|NN a|DT major|JJ bridge|NN in|IN Youngstown|NNP ]|NN per|IN day|NN than|IN any|DT other|JJ location|NN in|IN the|DT country|NN .|. 
”|NN 
During|IN the|DT 19th|JJ century|NN ,|, the|DT center|NN of|IN iron|NN manufacturing|NN had|VBD gradually|RB shifted|VBN from|IN the|DT far|RB East|NNP Coast|NNP (|( Massachusetts|NNP and|CC Eastern|NNP Pennsylvania|NNP )|) to|TO the|DT Ohio|NNP Valley|NNP Pittsburgh|NNP regions|NNS of|IN the|DT Northeast|NNP ,|, including|VBG the|DT Mahoning|NNP Valley|NNP and|CC the|DT Hanging|NNP Rock|NNP region|NN of|IN Ohio|NNP and|CC Kentucky|NNP .|. 
By|IN 1880|CD ,|, Youngstown|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ population|NN had|VBN grown|VBN to|TO nearly|RB 16,000|CD ,|, which|WDT meant|VBD it|PRP had|VBD doubled|VBN in|IN size|NN over|IN a|DT twenty|JJ -|- year|NN period|NN .|. 
The|DT town|NN continued|VBD to|TO prosper|VB ,|, driven|VBN by|IN the|DT flux|NN of|IN immigrants|NNS pouring|VBG in|IN with|IN the|DT hopes|NNS of|IN employment|NN at|IN the|DT mills|NNS .|. 
This|DT prosperity|NN continued|VBD until|IN the|DT late|JJ 1920s|NN ,|, when|WRB the|DT Great|NNP Depression|NNP hit|VBD the|DT area|NN hard|JJ .|. 
Despite|IN the|DT Congress|NNP of|IN Industrial|NNP Organization|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ successful|JJ efforts|NNS to|TO establish|VB a|DT national|JJ steel|NN workers|NNS ’|NN union|NN ,|, the|DT industry|NN barely|RB survived|VBD the|DT Depression|NNP years|NNS .|. 
Finally|RB ,|, the|DT outbreak|NN of|IN the|DT Second|NNP World|NNP War|NNP made|VBD iron|NN and|CC steel|NN important|JJ again|RB ,|, and|CC Youngstown|NNP was|VBD bolstered|VBN out|IN of|IN its|PRP$ economic|JJ standstill|NN into|IN a|DT fast|RB -|- paced|VBN period|NN of|IN booming|JJ growth|NN 
.|. 
Youngstown|NNP may|MD have|VB been|VBN an|DT important|JJ and|CC prosperous|JJ region|NN in|IN the|DT post-war|JJ period|NN ,|, but|CC the|DT seeds|NNS for|IN its|PRP$ downfall|NN were|VBD slowly|RB being|VBG sown|NN .|. 
Strikes|NNS racked|VBD the|DT town|NN during|IN the|DT forties|NNS ,|, fifties|NNS ,|, and|CC sixties|NNS ,|, and|CC they|PRP were|VBD often|RB long|JJ and|CC bloody|JJ .|. 
In|IN 1973|CD ,|, the|DT Experimental|NNP Negotiating|NNP Agreement|NNP was|VBD signed|VBN .|. 
This|DT prohibited|VBN strikes|NNS and|CC lockout|NN ,|, angering|VBG workers|NNS and|CC driving|VBG productivity|NN and|CC laborer|NN morale|NN down|RB .|. 
At|IN the|DT same|JJ time|NN ,|, stricter|JJR governmental|JJ standards|NNS for|IN environmental|JJ protection|NN and|CC the|DT growth|NN of|IN imported|VBN steel|NN were|VBD making|VBG it|PRP harder|RBR to|TO produce|VB and|CC market|VB American|JJ steel|NN parts|NNS ,|, and|CC the|DT overeager|JJ shareholders|NNS in|IN the|DT companies|NNS ’|NN stock|NN were|VBD pushing|VBG for|IN more|JJR and|CC more|JJR of|IN their|PRP$ share|NN of|IN the|DT pie|NN .|. 
Most|JJS importantly|RB ,|, Youngstown|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ steel|NN mills|NNS were|VBD slowly|RB becoming|VBG less|RBR efficient|JJ and|CC more|RBR expensive|JJ .|. 
Old|JJ technology|NN was|VBD not|RB replaced|VBN ,|, obsolete|JJ methods|NNS were|VBD not|RB updated|VBN ,|, and|CC almost|RB none|NN of|IN the|DT industry|NN ’|NN s|VBZ profits|NNS were|VBD being|VBG utilized|JJ to|TO help|VB modernize|VB .|. 
It|PRP was|VBD a|DT recipe|NN for|IN disaster|NN that|WDT would|MD soon|RB explode|VB in|IN the|DT faces|NNS of|IN hundreds|NNS of|IN thousands|NNS of|IN workers|NNS and|CC their|PRP$ families|NNS 
.|. 
Black|NNP Monday|NNP and|CC the|DT Crash|NNP of|IN the|DT Steel|NNP Industry|NNP The|DT announcement|NN of|IN the|DT closing|NN of|IN the|DT mills|NNS in|IN 1977|CD was|VBD the|DT beginning|NN of|IN a|DT downward|JJ spiral|NN ,|, which|WDT would|MD send|VB the|DT entire|JJ valley|NN into|IN chaos|NN and|CC ruin|VB .|. 
Between|IN 1977|CD and|CC 1981|CD ,|, a|DT total|NN of|IN five|CD mills|NNS were|VBD closed|VBN and|CC approximately|RB 25,000|CD jobs|NNS were|VBD lost|VBN countywide|NN .|. 
Meetings|NNS of|IN union|NN officials|NNS and|CC mill|NN bosses|NNS were|VBD hurriedly|RB set|VBN up|RP in|IN an|DT attempt|NN to|TO persuade|VB the|DT powers|NNS that|WDT be|VB to|TO reconsider|VB their|PRP$ statement|NN .|. 
However|RB ,|, it|PRP was|VBD clear|JJ that|IN ,|, in|IN the|DT words|NNS of|IN USWA|NNP president|NN Lloyd|NNP McBride|NNP ,|, “|NN If|IN you|PRP can|MD ’|NN t|NN make|VBP a|DT buck|NN ,|, you|PRP get|VBP out|IN of|IN the|DT business|NN .|. 
”|NN 
The|DT closings|NNS meant|VBD the|DT end|NN of|IN Youngstown|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ only|RB real|JJ industry|NN ,|, the|DT end|NN of|IN its|PRP$ population|NN growth|NN ,|, and|CC then|RB end|VB of|IN economic|JJ progress|NN .|. 
Without|IN the|DT mills|NNS ,|, people|NNS sought|VBD other|JJ places|NNS of|IN employment|NN in|IN adjoining|JJ states|NNS or|CC even|RB other|JJ areas|NNS of|IN the|DT country|NN .|. 
Those|DT that|WDT could|MD afford|VB to|TO move|NN did|VBD so|RB ;|: those|DT that|DT couldn|NN ’|NN t|NN afford|VB to|TO move|VB mostly|RB ended|VBD up|RP on|IN the|DT streets|NNS .|. 
Without|IN an|DT industrial|JJ or|CC a|DT residential|JJ base|NN ,|, commerce|NN shrank|VBD considerably|RB .|. 
It|PRP was|VBD becoming|VBG increasingly|RB clear|JJ that|IN without|IN the|DT industrial|JJ base|NN provided|VBN by|IN the|DT mills|NNS ,|, the|DT city|NN of|IN Youngstown|NNP would|MD soon|RB become|VB a|DT ghost|NN town|NN ,|, inhabited|VBN by|IN those|DT too|RB poor|JJ or|CC hopeful|JJ to|TO escape|VB .|. 
The|DT workers|NNS decided|VBD they|PRP needed|VBD to|TO do|VB something|NN to|TO save|VB their|PRP$ city|NN ,|, and|CC so|IN they|PRP mobilized|VBD in|IN a|DT variety|NN of|IN ways|NNS 
.|. 
Attempts|NNS to|TO Save|VB the|DT Mills|NNP The|DT very|RB first|JJ thing|NN that|IN the|DT workers|NNS could|MD do|VB was|VBD “|NN to|TO get|VB up|RP a|DT petition|NN to|TO stop|VB the|DT shutdown|NN ,|, ”|NN says|VBZ Ed|NNP Mann|NNP ,|, a|DT local|JJ union|NN leader|NN and|CC organizer|NN .|. 
The|DT petition|NN was|VBD circulated|VBN ,|, eventually|RB including|VBG thousands|NNS of|IN signatures|NNS ;|: it|PRP was|VBD then|RB given|VBN to|TO USWA|NNP representatives|NNS to|TO present|VB to|TO President|NNP Carter|NNP in|IN Washington|NNP .|. 
However|RB ,|, the|DT representatives|NNS were|VBD shunted|JJ to|TO the|DT side|NN and|CC ignored|VBN in|IN Washington|NNP ,|, since|IN Youngstown|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ political|JJ influence|NN had|VBD died|VBN with|IN its|PRP$ industry|NN 
.|. 
The|DT International|NNP chapter|NN of|IN the|DT USWA|NNP had|VBD much|RB more|JJR lobbying|VBG power|NN ,|, but|CC they|PRP refused|VBD to|TO support|VB the|DT local|JJ union|NN members|NNS .|. 
The|DT petition|NN was|VBD lost|VBN among|IN paperwork|NN and|CC bureaucratic|JJ procedure|NN 
.|. 
Next|JJ ,|, workers|NNS decided|VBD to|TO form|VB the|DT Ecumenical|NNP Coalition|NNP ,|, an|DT organization|NN of|IN local|JJ religious|JJ groups|NNS which|WDT spearheaded|VBD the|DT attempt|NN to|TO reopen|VB the|DT Youngstown|NNP works|VBZ .|. 
The|DT Coalition|NNP drafter|NN letters|NNS to|TO the|DT Lykes|NNP Company|NNP asking|VBG if|IN a|DT group|NN of|IN workers|NNS might|MD purchase|VB the|DT mill|NN and|CC run|VB it|PRP collectively|RB .|. 
Lykes|NNP ignored|VBD the|DT letters|NNS ,|, so|IN the|DT Coalition|NNP turned|VBD once|RB again|RB to|TO the|DT federal|JJ government|NN .|. 
Here|RB ,|, too|RB ,|, they|PRP were|VBD ignored|VBN .|. 
The|DT Coalition|NNP had|VBD no|DT proper|JJ funds|NNS to|TO buy|VB the|DT mills|NNS ,|, so|IN they|PRP could|MD do|VB nothing|NN but|CC sit|VB back|RB and|CC watch|VB as|IN the|DT mills|NNS closed|VBD .|. 
Finally|RB ,|, following|VBG the|DT shutdown|NN of|IN US|NNP Steel|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ plant|NN in|IN 1980|CD ,|, local|JJ union|NN leaders|NNS congregated|JJ outside|IN the|DT US|NNP Steel|NNP Headquarters|NNP in|IN Youngstown|NNP .|. 
They|PRP invited|VBD local|JJ people|NNS and|CC politicians|NNS to|TO witness|NN the|DT scene|NN ,|, then|RB charged|VBD the|DT Headquarters|NNP and|CC took|VBD it|PRP over|IN .|. 
The|DT workers|NNS stayed|VBD there|RB until|IN the|DT next|JJ day|NN ,|, when|WRB US|NNP Steel|NNP declared|VBD that|IN they|PRP were|VBD ready|JJ to|TO talk|VB about|IN selling|VBG the|DT mill|NN .|. 
Immediately|RB after|IN the|DT workers|NNS left|VBD the|DT building|NN ,|, US|NNP steel|NN representatives|NNS told|VBD the|DT local|JJ union|NN leaders|NNS that|IN they|PRP had|VBD changed|VBN their|PRP$ minds|NNS and|CC were|VBD no|DT longer|RB interested|JJ in|IN allowing|VBG the|DT workers|NNS to|TO purchase|VB the|DT mill|NN 
.|. 
All|DT these|DT efforts|NNS eventually|RB came|VBD to|TO nothing|NN ,|, and|CC Youngstown|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ steel|NN mills|NNS remained|VBD closed|VBN .|. 
These|DT attempts|NNS to|TO save|VB the|DT mills|NNS were|VBD hindered|VBN by|IN several|JJ major|JJ factors|NNS ,|, including|VBG the|DT decline|NN of|IN the|DT world|NN steel|NN market|NN ,|, which|WDT made|VBD American|JJ steel|NN impossible|JJ to|TO sell|VB or|CC export|VB 
.|. 
The|DT Decline|NNP of|IN the|DT World|NNP Market|NNP The|DT efforts|NNS to|TO save|VB the|DT mills|NNS failed|VBD partly|RB because|IN the|DT international|JJ market|NN for|IN steel|NN had|VBD largely|RB dried|VBN up|RP .|. 
During|IN World|NNP War|NNP II|NNP the|DT rest|NN of|IN the|DT world|NN was|VBD hungry|JJ for|IN America|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ iron|NN and|CC steel|NN products|NNS ;|: however|RB ,|, by|IN the|DT seventies|NNS no|DT foreign|JJ nations|NNS needed|VBN to|TO import|VB steel|NN in|IN such|JJ large|JJ quantities|NNS .|. 
In|IN fact|NN ,|, American|JJ steel|NN imports|NNS were|VBD beginning|VBG to|TO outweigh|VB exports|NNS .|. 

Foreign|JJ steel|NN was|VBD easier|JJR and|CC more|RBR efficient|JJ to|TO make|VB ,|, and|CC was|VBD often|RB of|IN higher|JJR quality|NN than|IN domestic|JJ steel|NN .|. 
Foreign|JJ steel|NN companies|NNS invested|VBN in|IN their|PRP$ factories|NNS ,|, updating|VBG their|PRP$ technology|NN and|CC replacing|VBG their|PRP$ equipment|NN often|RB .|. 
This|DT meant|VBN that|IN foreign|JJ facilities|NNS were|VBD more|RBR modern|JJ and|CC efficient|JJ than|IN any|DT plants|NNS in|IN America|NNP ,|, and|CC therefore|RB were|VBD able|JJ to|TO export|VB a|DT more|RBR competitive|JJ product|NN 
.|. 
Foreign|JJ steel|NN was|VBD also|RB much|RB cheaper|JJR .|. 
Wage|NN hikes|NNS ,|, although|IN they|PRP helped|VBD to|TO improve|VB living|VBG conditions|NNS of|IN steel|NN workers|NNS in|IN the|DT US|NNP ,|, made|VBD American|JJ steel|NN far|RB more|RBR expensive|JJ .|. 
Also|RB ,|, international|JJ competitors|NNS drew|VBD on|IN a|DT large|JJ supply|NN of|IN very|RB cheap|JJ labor|NN .|. 
Jobs|NNP were|VBD scarce|JJ in|IN other|JJ steel|NN -|- exporting|VBG countries|NNS ,|, and|CC labor|NN laws|NNS were|VBD either|CC non-existent|JJ or|CC allowed|VBN employers|NNS to|TO pay|VB much|RB less|JJR for|IN work|NN .|. 
Labor|NN costs|NNS in|IN America|NNP continued|VBD to|TO go|VB up|RP ,|, draining|VBG US|NNP companies|NNS of|IN their|PRP$ resources|NNS ,|, while|IN companies|NNS overseas|RB were|VBD able|JJ to|TO cut|VB labor|NN costs|NNS and|CC put|VBD that|DT money|NN back|RB into|IN updating|VBG and|CC renovating|VBG their|PRP$ facilities|NNS 
.|. 
On|IN a|DT worldwide|NN scale|NN ,|, newer|JJR materials|NNS such|JJ as|IN aluminum|NN ,|, plastic|NN ,|, and|CC composites|NNS were|VBD beginning|VBG to|TO substitute|VB steel|NN both|DT at|IN home|NN and|CC abroad|RB .|. 
Steel|NN demand|NN worldwide|NN was|VBD beginning|VBG to|TO decline|VB ,|, and|CC it|PRP affected|VBD both|DT domestic|JJ and|CC foreign|JJ companies|NNS .|. 
However|RB ,|, to|TO American|JJ companies|NNS already|RB suffering|VBG financial|JJ setbacks|NNS ,|, outdated|JJ machinery|NN ,|, and|CC fierce|JJ competition|NN ,|, this|DT lack|NN of|IN demand|NN was|VBD an|DT inconvenience|NN they|PRP could|MD not|RB afford|VB .|. 
America|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ steel|NN remained|VBN unsold|JJ ,|, flooding|VBG the|DT world|NN market|NN with|IN inferior|JJ products|NNS that|IN no|DT one|CD wanted|VBD to|TO buy|VB 
.|. 
Since|IN this|DT problem|NN was|VBD a|DT national|JJ one|CD rather|RB than|IN a|DT local|JJ one|CD ,|, the|DT problems|NNS that|WDT were|VBD occurring|VBG in|IN Youngstown|NNP were|VBD not|RB unique|JJ .|. 
Youngstown|NNP was|VBD perhaps|RB hit|VBN harder|RBR than|IN any|DT other|JJ town|NN by|IN the|DT collapse|NN of|IN the|DT steel|NN industry|NN ,|, but|CC it|PRP was|VBD not|RB alone|RB .|. 
The|DT problem|NN was|VBD a|DT national|JJ one|CD ,|, involving|VBG many|JJ more|JJR mills|NNS and|CC issues|NNS than|IN Youngstown|NNP ’|NN s|VBZ alone|RB .|. 
J.|NN Philip|NNP Richley|NNP ,|, a|DT union|NN member|NN and|CC organizer|NN of|IN many|JJ attempts|NNS to|TO save|VB 5|CD the|DT mills|NNS ,|, has|VBZ summed|VBD it|PRP up|RP thus|RB :|: “|NN You|PRP just|RB can|MD ’|NN t|NN solve|VB a|DT nation|NN -|- wide|JJ problem|NN in|IN a|DT single|JJ city|NN .|. ”|NN 
The|DT decline|NN of|IN the|DT world|NN steel|NN market|NN affected|VBN not|RB just|RB Youngstown|NNP but|CC the|DT entire|JJ steel|NN community|NN in|IN America|NNP .|. 
Trying|VBG to|TO prop|VB up|RP one|CD city|NN ’|NN s|VBZ mills|NNS was|VBD impossible|JJ when|WRB faced|VBN with|IN the|DT depression|NN that|DT spread|NN throughout|IN the|DT entire|JJ industry|NN 
.|. 
The|DT Save|VB Our|PRP$ Valley|NNP Campaign|NNP :|: Lack|NN of|IN Funds|NNS and|CC Plans|NNS Eventually|RB ,|, some|DT religious|JJ leaders|NNS involved|VBN in|IN the|DT Ecumenical|NNP Coalition|NNP joined|VBD forces|NNS within|IN community|NN members|NNS and|CC former|JJ steel|NN mill|NN employees|NNS to|TO create|VB the|DT Save|VB Our|PRP$ Valley|NNP Campaign|NNP .|. 
As|IN the|DT name|NN suggests|VBZ ,|, local|JJ leaders|NNS wanted|VBD to|TO instill|VB the|DT people|NNS of|IN Youngstown|NNP with|IN a|DT fierce|JJ sense|NN of|IN urgency|NN ,|, driving|VBG them|PRP forward|RB to|TO confront|VB steel|NN companies|NNS and|CC owners|NNS and|CC help|VB secure|VB the|DT future|NN of|IN the|DT region|NN .|. 
Marches|NNP ,|, speeches|NNS ,|, and|CC letter|NN writing|VBG were|VBD all|DT employed|VBN to|TO help|VB stimulate|VB the|DT Campaign|NNP and|CC rally|VB the|DT people|NNS .|. 
But|CC the|DT Campaign|NNP was|VBD bogged|VBD down|RB heavily|RB by|IN the|DT lack|NN of|IN proper|JJ funding|NN .|. 
The|DT people|NNS of|IN Youngstown|NNP ,|, being|VBG now|RB unemployed|JJ had|VBD very|RB little|JJ money|NN to|TO spend|VB on|IN anything|NN but|CC staying|VBG alive|JJ .|. 
College|NNP tuition|NN ,|, clothes|NNS ,|, food|NN ,|, and|CC heating|VBG all|DT had|VBD to|TO come|VB before|IN donations|NNS to|TO non-profit|JJ organizations|NNS .|. 
People|NNS outside|IN of|IN the|DT area|NN had|VBD no|DT personal|JJ investment|NN in|IN the|DT mills|NNS ,|, and|CC so|IN it|PRP was|VBD difficult|JJ to|TO convince|VB anyone|NN from|IN out|IN of|IN the|DT county|NN to|TO contribute|VB funds|NNS .|. 
The|DT lack|NN of|IN money|NN proved|VBN to|TO be|VB crippling|JJ ,|, because|IN it|PRP prevented|VBD the|DT organizations|NNS involved|VBN from|IN purchasing|VBG the|DT mills|NNS to|TO run|VB collectively|RB .|. 
Without|IN funds|NNS ,|, the|DT Save|VB Our|PRP$ Valley|NNP Campaign|NNP could|MD do|VB nothing|NN major|JJ to|TO help|VB salvage|VB the|DT city|NN ’|NN s|VBZ dying|VBG economy|NN 
.|. 
The|DT Save|VB Our|PRP$ Valley|NNP Campaign|NNP also|RB lacked|VBD one|CD essential|JJ component|NN :|: an|DT actual|JJ concrete|JJ plan|NN .|. 
No|DT one|NN seemed|VBD to|TO know|VB just|RB how|WRB to|TO go|VB about|IN fixing|VBG the|DT problems|NNS .|. 
Letters|NNS and|CC petitions|NNS were|VBD all|DT very|RB well|RB ,|, but|CC they|PRP did|VBD little|JJ to|TO improve|VB the|DT situation|NN .|. 
People|NNS clung|NN to|TO vague|JJ ideas|NNS of|IN worker|NN collectivization|NN ,|, but|CC no|DT one|PRP could|MD really|RB fathom|NN exactly|RB how|WRB that|WDT would|MD work|VB ;|: the|DT people|NNS of|IN Youngstown|NNP were|VBD ,|, after|IN all|DT ,|, not|RB particularly|RB familiar|JJ with|IN socialism|NN or|CC collectivization|NN in|IN general|NN .|. 
Beyond|IN that|DT ,|, no|DT one|CD knew|VBD how|WRB they|PRP should|MD proceed|VB :|: everyone|NN knew|VBD that|IN saving|VBG the|DT mills|NNS was|VBD important|JJ ,|, but|CC nobody|NN stepped|VBD forward|RB with|IN a|DT full|RB -|- fledged|VBN plan|NN to|TO do|VB it|PRP without|IN losing|VBG huge|JJ amounts|NNS of|IN money|NN and|CC dragging|VBG even|RB more|JJR people|NNS down|RB .|. 
Without|IN a|DT real|JJ plan|NN ,|, nothing|NN could|MD truly|RB be|VB achieved|VBN 
.|. 
Without|IN funds|NNS to|TO drive|VB the|DT efforts|NNS ,|, or|CC even|RB a|DT real|JJ plan|NN of|IN action|NN ,|, the|DT Save|VB Our|PRP$ Valley|NNP Campaign|NNP did|VBD more|JJR harm|NN than|IN good|NN .|. 
In|IN effect|NN ,|, it|PRP raised|VBD the|DT hopes|NNS of|IN workers|NNS without|IN having|VBG any|DT real|JJ chance|NN at|IN saving|VBG anything|NN .|. 
People|NNS became|VBD excited|VBN and|CC waited|VBN for|IN the|DT mills|NNS to|TO reappear|NN ,|, but|CC they|PRP never|RB did|VBD .|. 
The|DT Campaign|NNP failed|VBD to|TO save|VB any|DT jobs|NNS and|CC Youngstown|NNP was|VBD plunged|VBN into|IN economic|JJ chaos|NN 
.|. 
The|DT Apathy|NNP of|IN USWA|NNP United|NNP Steel|NNP Workers|NNPS of|IN America|NNP was|VBD the|DT union|NN representing|VBG the|DT Youngstown|NNP steel|NN workers|NNS when|WRB the|DT closings|NNS hit|VBD .|. 
Initially|RB many|JJ assumed|VBD that|IN their|PRP$ union|NN would|MD take|VB a|DT lead|NN role|NN in|IN fighting|VBG for|IN the|DT recovery|NN of|IN their|PRP$ jobs|NNS .|. 
However|RB ,|, it|PRP soon|RB became|VBD clear|JJ that|IN although|IN the|DT local|JJ union|NN leaders|NNS were|VBD prepared|VBN to|TO fight|VB ,|, the|DT international|JJ branch|NN was|VBD not|RB .|. 
The|DT higher|JJR levels|NNS of|IN the|DT union|NN became|VBD increasingly|RB disassociated|JJ with|IN Youngstown|NNP and|CC its|PRP$ plight|NN ,|, attempting|VBG to|TO shut|VB out|RP the|DT appeals|NNS from|IN workers|NNS and|CC local|JJ union|NN representatives|NNS and|CC to|TO ignore|VB what|WP was|VBD really|RB happening|VBG 
.|. 
Actually|RB ,|, one|CD main|JJ reason|NN for|IN the|DT behavior|NN of|IN the|DT USWA|NNP was|VBD that|IN union|NN leaders|NNS really|RB had|VBD no|DT idea|NN what|WP to|TO do|VB .|. 
No|DT one|NN had|VBD ever|RB seen|VBN a|DT shutdown|NN of|IN this|DT magnitude|NN and|CC rapidity|NN before|RB ,|, and|CC none|NN of|IN the|DT leaders|NNS of|IN USWA|NNP ,|, not|RB even|RB president|NN Lynn|NNP Williams|NNP ,|, knew|VBD what|WP could|MD be|VB done|VBN .|. 
It|PRP was|VBD clear|JJ to|TO everyone|NN that|IN the|DT economic|JJ fallout|NN from|IN this|DT series|NN of|IN closings|NNS would|MD be|VB one|CD of|IN the|DT worst|JJS in|IN US|NNP history|NN ,|, and|CC so|RB without|IN any|DT real|JJ precedents|NNS the|DT union|NN leaders|NNS were|VBD flustered|JJ .|. 
Rather|RB than|IN try|VB and|CC come|VB up|RB with|IN some|DT sort|NN of|IN scenario|NN ,|, the|DT USWA|NNP simply|RB ignored|VBD what|WP was|VBD going|VBG on|IN in|IN Youngstown|NNP ,|, hoping|VBG that|IN perhaps|RB the|DT problem|NN would|MD resolve|VB itself|PRP ,|, or|CC at|IN least|JJS not|RB spread|VB any|DT further|RBR than|IN it|PRP already|RB had|VBD 
.|. 
Besides|IN incompetence|NN ,|, the|DT USWA|NNP had|VBD one|CD other|JJ major|JJ reason|NN for|IN rejecting|VBG their|PRP$ local|JJ counterpart|NN :|: fear|NN of|IN socialism|NN .|. 
Obviously|RB the|DT union|NN itself|PRP was|VBD not|RB afraid|JJ of|IN socialist|JJ action|NN ,|, but|CC they|PRP worried|VBD that|IN the|DT federal|JJ government|NN might|MD see|VB the|DT efforts|NNS of|IN Youngstown|NNP workers|NNS to|TO collectivize|NN as|IN a|DT movement|NN towards|IN socialism|NN and|CC perhaps|RB even|RB communism|NN .|. 
If|IN the|DT USWA|NNP supported|VBD the|DT efforts|NNS to|TO revive|VB the|DT mills|NNS and|CC encouraged|VBN worker|NN control|NN and|CC ownership|NN of|IN the|DT factories|NNS ,|, then|RB the|DT government|NN (|( and|CC potentially|RB other|JJ important|JJ people|NNS and|CC institutions|NNS as|RB well|RB )|) might|MD begin|VB to|TO think|VB that|IN the|DT UWSA|NNP leaders|NNS were|VBD encouraging|VBG socialism|NN .|. 
This|DT would|MD mean|VB that|IN UWSA|NNP would|MD lose|VB credibility|NN with|IN the|DT American|JJ government|NN and|CC its|PRP$ people|NNS ,|, something|NN they|PRP could|MD not|RB afford|VB to|TO do|VB .|. 
Therefore|RB ,|, they|PRP decided|VBD to|TO withdraw|VB support|NN and|CC let|VB the|DT local|JJ branch|NN fight|NN it|PRP out|IN alone|RB 
.|. 
Regionalism|NNP From|IN its|PRP$ very|RB first|JJ days|NNS the|DT Mahoning|NNP Valley|NNP has|VBZ been|VBN an|DT area|NN packed|VBN with|IN small|JJ villages|NNS and|CC hamlets|NNS .|. 
Youngstown|NNP is|VBZ the|DT name|NN of|IN the|DT major|JJ city|NN area|NN ,|, but|CC surrounding|VBG it|PRP on|IN all|DT sides|NNS are|VBP small|JJ communities|NNS which|WDT to|TO the|DT casual|JJ viewer|NN are|VBP indistinguishable|JJ from|IN the|DT main|JJ city|NN itself|PRP .|. 
Boardman|NNP ,|, Poland|NNP Township|NNP ,|, Struthers|NNP ,|, Lowellville|NNP ,|, Warren|NNP ,|, Lordstown|NNP ,|, Canfield|NNP ,|, Niles|NNP ,|, and|CC many|JJ other|JJ towns|NNS and|CC districts|NNS are|VBP crowded|VBN around|IN Youngstown|NNP (|( see|VB Figure|NN 3|CD )|) .|. 
People|NNS from|IN each|DT town|NN work|NN ,|, shop|NN ,|, eat|VB ,|, and|CC socialize|VB in|IN towns|NNS separate|JJ from|IN their|PRP$ own|JJ ,|, making|VBG each|DT town|NN strongly|RB dependent|JJ on|IN every|DT other|JJ town|NN .|. 
However|RB ,|, although|IN traffic|NN is|VBZ heavy|JJ between|IN each|DT separate|JJ district|NN ,|, each|DT area|NN has|VBZ its|PRP$ own|JJ distinct|JJ cultural|JJ ethnicity|NN ,|, educational|JJ system|NN ,|, heritage|NN ,|, history|NN ,|, and|CC even|RB food|NN .|. 
For|IN example|NN ,|, Struthers|NNP is|VBZ a|DT poor|JJ town|NN with|IN a|DT large|JJ Slovak|NNP population|NN ,|, where|WRB education|NN is|VBZ generally|RB better|JJR than|IN in|IN surrounding|VBG towns|NNS ,|, but|CC unemployment|NN is|VBZ much|RB higher|JJR and|CC pollution|NN is|VBZ widespread|JJ .|. 
Most|JJS people|NNS in|IN Struthers|NNP are|VBP either|CC Orthodox|NNP or|CC Baptist|NNP .|. 
Two|CD blocks|NNS over|IN one|CD finds|VBZ Boardman|NNP ,|, a|DT well|RB -|- off|IN township|NN with|IN a|DT reputation|NN for|IN rich|JJ but|CC unsuccessful|JJ schools|NNS .|. 
Its|PRP$ residents|NNS are|VBP mainly|RB Italian|JJ and|CC Roman|NNP Catholic|NNP ,|, with|IN a|DT small|JJ concentration|NN of|IN Methodists|NNPS on|IN the|DT east|JJ side|NN .|. 
Unemployment|NN is|VBZ low|JJ in|IN comparison|NN with|IN surrounding|VBG towns|NNS ,|, and|CC the|DT streets|NNS are|VBP clean|VB and|CC well|RB kept|VBD .|. 
With|IN many|JJ more|JJR cultures|NNS ,|, religions|NNS ,|, and|CC economic|JJ levels|NNS living|VBG in|IN close|JJ proximity|NN to|TO one|CD another|DT ,|, a|DT curious|JJ phenomenon|NN has|VBZ overtaken|VBN the|DT area|NN :|: regionalism|NN .|. 
Each|DT town|NN ,|, with|IN their|PRP$ own|JJ identity|NN ,|, instills|NNS a|DT strong|JJ regionalistic|JJ feeling|NN within|IN their|PRP$ respective|JJ populations|NNS ,|, which|WDT dictates|VBZ many|JJ habits|NNS ,|, exchanges|NNS ,|, and|CC interactions|NNS between|IN populations|NNS .|. 
Oftentimes|NNP this|DT regionalism|NN takes|VBZ the|DT form|NN of|IN bizarre|JJ forms|NNS of|IN hatred|NN ,|, with|IN certain|JJ towns|NNS becoming|VBG sworn|VBN enemies|NNS of|IN others|NNS 
.|. 
With|IN so|RB much|JJ regional|JJ tension|NN ,|, it|PRP became|VBD very|RB hard|RB for|IN workers|NNS to|TO unite|VB under|IN a|DT common|JJ cause|NN ,|, even|RB one|CD that|WDT would|MD save|VB their|PRP$ jobs|NNS and|CC their|PRP$ futures|NNS .|. 
Workers|NNS from|IN Poland|NNP Township|NNP would|MD refuse|VB to|TO attend|VB rallies|NNS with|IN workers|NNS from|IN Campbell|NNP ,|, and|CC citizens|NNS of|IN Struthers|NNP would|MD become|VB suspicious|JJ of|IN people|NNS from|IN Boardman|NNP ,|, even|RB if|IN they|PRP were|VBD supposed|VBN to|TO be|VB working|VBG towards|IN the|DT same|JJ thing|NN .|. 
A|DT lack|NN of|IN cooperation|NN became|VBD a|DT crippling|JJ problem|NN for|IN the|DT movement|NN ,|, because|IN no|DT one|CD was|VBD willing|JJ to|TO put|VB aside|RB regional|JJ differences|NNS to|TO work|VB together|RB .|. 
In|IN some|DT instances|NNS ,|, small|JJ companies|NNS would|MD express|VB interest|NN in|IN helping|VBG the|DT movement|NN or|CC in|IN relocating|VBG their|PRP$ business|NN in|IN the|DT area|NN ,|, but|CC because|IN of|IN regional|JJ pride|NN no|DT one|PRP could|MD ever|RB agree|VB where|WRB the|DT new|JJ businesses|NNS should|MD relocate|VB .|. 
In|IN this|DT way|NN the|DT people|NNS of|IN the|DT Mahoning|NNP Valley|NNP missed|VBD many|JJ opportunities|NNS for|IN new|JJ industrial|JJ or|CC commercial|JJ lifeblood|NN because|IN of|IN arbitrary|JJ arguments|NNS where|WRB the|DT goal|NN was|VBD simply|RB to|TO protect|VB regional|JJ pride|NN 
.|. 
Conclusion|NNP :|: The|DT Aftershock|NNP and|CC the|DT Significance|NN of|IN Black|NNP Monday|NNP Black|NNP Monday|NNP was|VBD a|DT devastating|JJ blow|NN to|TO an|DT entire|JJ generation|NN of|IN people|NNS .|. 
The|DT efforts|NNS to|TO avoid|VB catastrophe|NN after|IN the|DT fact|NN were|VBD unsuccessful|JJ for|IN four|CD main|JJ reasons|NNS :|: the|DT failure|NN of|IN the|DT international|JJ steel|NN market|NN ,|, the|DT lack|NN of|IN funds|NNS and|CC plans|NNS in|IN initiatives|NNS such|JJ as|IN the|DT Save|VB Our|PRP$ Valley|NNP Campaign|NNP ,|, the|DT refusal|NN of|IN the|DT USWA|NNP to|TO support|VB their|PRP$ local|JJ chapter|NN out|IN of|IN ineptitude|NN and|CC fear|NN ,|, and|CC the|DT absurd|JJ but|CC very|RB real|JJ regionalism|NN which|WDT corrupted|JJ solidarity|NN efforts|NNS and|CC drove|VBD away|RB any|DT hope|VBP for|IN brining|VBG in|IN new|JJ companies|NNS 
.|. 
What|WP happened|VBD in|IN Youngstown|NNP may|MD not|RB seem|VB significant|JJ on|IN an|DT international|JJ or|CC even|RB on|IN a|DT national|JJ level|NN ,|, and|CC perhaps|RB it|PRP is|VBZ not|RB .|. 
But|CC to|TO the|DT thousands|NNS of|IN people|NNS living|VBG there|RB ,|, the|DT loss|NN of|IN the|DT mills|NNS was|VBD a|DT devastating|JJ event|NN that|WDT sent|VBD shock|NN waves|NNS through|IN their|PRP$ economic|JJ ,|, political|JJ ,|, and|CC social|JJ futures|NNS .|. 
Because|IN of|IN the|DT mills|NNS and|CC their|PRP$ conspicuous|JJ absence|NN ,|, hundreds|NNS of|IN people|NNS were|VBD uprooted|VBD ,|, forced|VBN to|TO leave|VB their|PRP$ homes|NNS and|CC tightly|RB knit|VBN communities|NNS .|. 
Hundreds|NNS more|JJR joined|VBD the|DT unemployment|NN lines|NNS ,|, or|CC even|RB began|VBD living|VBG on|IN the|DT streets|NNS .|. 
For|IN the|DT people|NNS of|IN Youngstown|NNP ,|, Black|NNP Monday|NNP was|VBD not|RB just|RB a|DT historical|JJ event|NN -|- it|PRP was|VBD the|DT most|RBS important|JJ event|NN in|IN their|PRP$ lives|NNS 
.|. 
The|DT steel|NN workers|NNS who|WP tried|VBD to|TO save|VB their|PRP$ jobs|NNS and|CC their|PRP$ lives|NNS were|VBD part|NN of|IN something|NN greater|JJR than|IN themselves|PRP ,|, something|NN which|WDT would|MD endure|VB long|RB after|IN they|PRP had|VBD moved|VBN away|RB and|CC moved|VBD on|IN .|. 
Even|RB though|IN they|PRP eventually|RB failed|VBD ,|, the|DT fact|NN that|IN they|PRP tried|VBD to|TO preserve|VB what|WP they|PRP felt|VBD belonged|VBD to|TO them|PRP is|VBZ an|DT amazing|JJ example|NN of|IN how|WRB far|RB people|NNS will|MD go|VB to|TO save|VB their|PRP$ lives|NNS and|CC the|DT futures|NNS of|IN their|PRP$ children|NNS 
.|. 
